Narcissism as a historical, psychological, mythological concept. The Oxford Dictionary of English defines narcissism as ‘Excessive interest in or admiration of oneself and one's physical appearance’. As a personality structure that we call ‘narcissism’ that has roots from the Greek Mythology from Narcissus the person who sees own reflection on the water and love this reflection. It can be described as a fall in love with himself and try to reach that love which can’t be possible. Fascinated by his own reflection, he pined away. Where he pined, it opens beautiful flower which called by the name of him, Narcissus. What is emphasized in this touching story is the extreme self-love which Narcissus manifests, the very quality which is designated by the term narcissism (Spotnitz, p.173). Narcissus was described with all his beauty in the Roman poet Ovidius’ Metamorphoses book;
multi illum iuvenes, multae cupiere puellae,
fuit in tenera tam dura superbia forma
nulli illum iuvenes, nullae tetigere puellae (353-355)
(Many the youth, and many the girl who desired him, but so harsh was the pride within his tender body that no youth, no girl ever touched him)
Echo (who loved Narcissus) and Narcissus - J. M. W. Turner and John William Waterhouse
Narcissus, in the moment of self-knowledge when he is unable to step out of his charm with his own image:
I am that one! I realize it and my reflection does not deceive me. I am burning with a love for myself, I both excite the flames and suffer them.
What am I to do? Am I to be wooed, or do I woo? And then, how shall I woo?
What I desire is with me: my plenty has made me poor;
Oh whould that I were able to withdraw from my body;
And, a starange wish in a lover, I should like what I love to be apart. (464-469)
(Cronin, J. S, 2009)
Caravaggio Salvador Dali
In the fields of psychology the term “Narcissism” first used by Havelock Ellis (1898), Freud (1905/1953) similarly used the terms of “ego-libido” (self-love) and “narcissistic libido” as pointing the meanings of narcissism. Ellis’ and Freud’s psychoanalytic narcissism both included an immature, exclusively self-gratifying sexuality that is not necessarily a part of its clinical definition today. A few years later the concept of narcissism began to include certain 2 characteristics more familiar to personality and social psychologists today (Konrath, p.1).
Freud: Primary-Secondary Narcissism
Freud, in A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis (1916/1917), mentioned that the concept of narcissism brought him into a field where great advanced in analytic work could be expected. This concept necessitated a ‘psychology of ego’ and the study of the narcissistic disorders (Bing, J., 1959, p.9).
For Freud narcissism is a normal part of the development of the maturation process that he mentioned his book ‘On Narcissism: An Introduction’ “complement to the egoism of the instinct for self-preservation” (p. 74). Freud theorized the narcissism as an investment of the libidinal energy. In the early period of the development, the child’s relationship with the external world is limited. For them, it is hard to differentiate the objects as a ‘self’ and ‘the others’ so they invest their all energy in themselves. For children, the only person is themselves and this situation named as primary narcissism. For Freud (2015) departure from the primary narcissism is a part of the healthy developmental process (p.13). By growing up children’s relation to the objects increases and they invest their libidinal energy to the objects to the self again. Returning the libido to the self again by investing the libidinal energy to identify the new objects (Akvardar, Y. Et al. ,2015, p.91). Secondary narcissism can be thought as a regression to the primary narcissism. For Freud, narcissism divided as a normal and pathologic with the explanation about the investment of the libido that is primary and secondary narcissism which was reshaped by many psychoanalysts. Thoughts about the narcissism and criticism opened the new doors to the literature of psychoanalysis as a new school.
Psychoanalytic Approach
Ellis (1898) originally coined the term ‘narcissism’ to apply to auto-eroticism, i.e. a sexual perversion where the person takes himself as a sexual object. Despite its subsequent varying usage, the term has nevertheless retained the implication of a positive libidinal feeling towards the self. The definition most widely accepted is Hartmann’s (1950) ‘the libidinal investment of the self‘, this departing little from Freud’s papers (Russell, G. A, p.137). For primary and secondary narcissism, there are different explanations and concepts for the base taking the primary narcissism as an investment of the libido to the self and secondary narcissism as a returning the libido the self after the awareness of the objects.
A phalanx of psychoanalysts, from Freud and Fromm to Kohut and Kernberg, have drawn inspiration from the tale of Narcissus to explore such distinct phenomena as love, creativity, castration fear, inferiority, shame, lack of empathy, rage, and sadism, and also for the understanding of mass psychoses, particularly that of consensual submission to authoritarian regimes (Cheliotis, L., 2011, p.344).
There is a variety of different understanding of the narcissism by the psychoanalysts in terms of hypothetical and technical way. Two main therapeutic approach that analysts focus mostly; one side Freud’s thoughts about the primary narcissism and being part of the normal development process and the other side who follows the Klein’s thought about the existence of the object relations that exists at the beginning of the development as they mentioned. There is another group who defends the no-object stage at the beginning of the developmental process; Anna Freud, M. Mahler, Winnicott, Balint, and Kohut are the people can be count in this group (Quinodoz, J.M., 2016, p. 147-148). Later the elements of these different definitions, points were used to create the diagnostic criteria for Narcissistic Personality Disorder in the DSM-III. Otto Kernberg one of the important name who made a contribution to the DSM for narcissism part. He also wrote extensively on narcissistic disorders, believing that they were a subtype of borderline personality disorders (Kernberg, 2012). After Freud and his idea about primary narcissism related to the object relations, some of the ideas came out that opposite to him. For Klein there no concept like primary narcissism because from the beginning of life, there is an object relation in other words when baby born he/she can realize the object. In that part, Klein and Freud have opposite thoughts. If one holds with the theory of primary narcissism, the discovery of the goodness of the external comes relatively late and leads to narcissistic rage. If with Klein, one holds that from birth there is a capacity for awareness of the external object, this narcissistic rage is an expression of envy (Segall, H. & Bell, H., p.165).
Winnicott viewed narcissism as a one-body relationship, either an early form of secondary narcissism or primary narcissism itself (Winnicott, p.416). For Winnicott, primary narcissism cannot be conceived of in any solipsistic way. How it develops should be thought of within the context of the primary psychic relationship that is set up with the specific features of any given environment (Roussillon, R., p.2). For Winnicott the expectation from the object is the reflection of the person as a shadow and on that point identification comes, the primary narcissistic identification which is transferring the ideal self to the other person. Winnicott argued that there is a gap between the individual and her self. He widened the gap that makes narcissism and breaking free of narcissism analyzable and thus able to be symbolized (Roussillon, R., p.17).
For Mahler, narcissism is cathexis of the self and the object. Mahler’s account of narcissism contains similar ambiguities, but, unlike Freud, she has made an attempt to resolve them (Greenberg, J. ,p.288). The roots of narcissism come from both cognitive and libidinal base which means object and its function. So the definitions of the object affect cognitively the importance of the object which provides the differentiation self and other. For Mahler, there is an inevitable relationship between the symbiosis and narcissism. Mahler’s symbiotic phase points primary narcissism.
For Lacan narcissism is one of the phases of his mirror stage. Narcissism, in which the image of one’s own body is sustained by the image of the other, in fact, introduces a tension: the other in his image both attracts and rejects me (Julien, P., p.34). Lacan developed the Freud’s theory of narcissism with the well know his mirror stage explanation. For him, injuries start with born and human being trying to exist in the world that he/she can’t give meaning to it. In a symbolic place, gathering the components in order to find whole for the existence of itself. For that wholeness, there needs to facing with ‘other’ in other words with the mirror stage. Like the Narcissus, he realized his reality with the mirror, he realizes what he is unaware until he saw himself, the awareness that he gained destroyed him. Primary narcissism is a first state which the infant sees his own person as the object of love which precedes his ability to awareness to the objects. Secondary narcissism results from the transferring the investment of the ego in the external world’s objects. Both primary and secondary narcissism seems to be a defense against aggressive drives (Roudinesco, J., p.29).
Kohut and Kernberg are two important names in the subject of narcissism who have theoretically different from Freud’s idea. They have some theoretical difference from the each other about the theory; Kohut contributed that love of the self and love of the object are independent but for Kernberg they are interdependent. Kohut’s theory includes a narcissistic phase without an object. From the Kohut’s view, a pathological narcissism happens by a fixation at the early stage of narcissistic development. Kernberg’s pathological narcissism’s criteria mostly based on the structure of DSM. Kernberg’s theory compound the views of Freud and Klein. The exact opposite situation to Kernberg, Kohut finds immature narcissism same with the pathological narcissism.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Narcissism was included as a personality disorder first time in the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-III) in 1980. In the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000), an individual must have the following symptoms in order to be diagnosed with Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD): A pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), need for admiration, and lack of empathy, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following:
About these criteria there were many discussions, criticisms made by the clinicians. About the possibility of the hostility and agressiveness discussed. One of the issue about these criterias; Freud, Kohut, and Kernberg thought that some of these criterias an important part of the healthy developmental process.
The disorder is viewed as consisting of characteristic "overt" and "covert" findings in six areas of psychosocial functioning: (1) self-concept; (2) interpersonal relations; (3) social adaptation; (4) ethics, standards and ideals; (5) love and sexuality; and (6) cognitive style. Overtly, and individual with narcissistic personality disorder is grandiose, exploitative, moralistic, often successful and impressively knowledgeable and articulate. Covertly deeply envious of others, bored, corruptible, unable to love, forgetful of details, and inattentive to objective aspects of events. (Akhtar, S.) These are some aspects of narcissistic personality pathology based on the observations. Narcissism took attention in these past decades as an individual difference which is important in a clinical intervention with its consequences as perceptions of one’s own behavior and attributes. Narcissism levels have been increasing among Western youth, and contribute to societal problems such as aggression and violence. Research shows that narcissism is higher in Western than non-Western countries, and suggests that narcissism levels have been steadily increasing among Western youth over the past few decades (Brummelman et al., 2015). For the assessment part, scales are improved to have clear information for clinical equivalence. There are many types of research on the subject of Narcissism and many measurements use in this researches. There are inventories that use for researchers, therapeutic interventions in the dynamic approach mostly projective tests such as Rorschach, and for the other approaches descriptive orientated objective tests. Narcissistic personality inventory is one of the most used scales in the research about the narcissism. The most widespread measure used by non-clinical researchers, the 40-item Narcissistic Personality Inventory or NPI-40, capture a range of different facets of the construct but its length may prohibit its use in settings where time pressure and respondent fatigue are major concerns. (Brummelman et al., 2015).
Narcissistic Personality Inventory,
Figures taken from Twenge et. al. (2008) showing NPI scores for American undergraduate samples across time.
In psychology literature there are many researches about the narcissism and its effects for different time periods, places; differences between the gender, age.
Conclusion
From the myth of the Narcissus to the psychoanalysis, theories and today’s personality disorder, narcissism has a long time history. The concept of narcissism shaped by mostly psychoanalysis and even today one of the important bases for the dynamic approach, psychoanalysis. After Freud; Klein, Winnicott, Mahler, Lacan, Kohut, and Kernberg made important contributions to the concept. Some of the criticisms became another theory and open the doors to new theories like Lacan’s mirror stage, Kernberg’s explanations about the borderline personality and psychology of self-came from the narcissism critics, explanations. New thoughts, schools came by these restatements and today narcissistic personality disorder are examined with all these theories, discussions.
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Author: Psychologist Ayşe Selin ZORLU
