Have you ever found yourself thinking over and over about something that’s bothering you? According to Response Style Theory, rumination is a way some people respond to distress. However, instead of focusing on finding active solutions—like changing the situation that causes distress—rumination involves repetitive thinking about the causes and consequences of one’s negative feelings (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). For instance, imagine a student named Ahmet who didn’t receive the university exam result he was hoping for. His mind keeps circling back to what went wrong: the questions he couldn’t answer, the mistakes he made while preparing, and what might have happened if he had done things differently. This cycle of overthinking is an example of rumination.Interestingly, the word “rumination” comes from the Latin ruminationem, meaning “to chew the cud” (Harper, n.d.). Just like animals chew their food multiple times to digest it, humans can “mentally chew” their thoughts—revisiting the same ideas again and again without making progress.
In rumination, not only the repetitive nature of thoughts matters—what we think about is also important. According to Response Style Theory and many other psychological approaches, rumination is seen as a cognitive pattern closely linked to depression. It is especially common in individuals struggling with depressive symptoms. The content of ruminative thoughts often reflects unhelpful or distorted thinking patterns, also known as cognitive distortions, which are frequently associated with depressed mood. Some common examples of these distortions include emotional reasoning, catastrophizing, all-or-nothing thinking, labeling, and rigid “should” or “must” statements (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). For instance, imagine Ahmet again. Each night, as he tries to sleep, he finds himself thinking, “I’m stupid and will always fail because I got a bad exam result.” This ruminative thought contains several cognitive distortions—labeling himself negatively, assuming the worst (catastrophizing), and seeing things in extremes (all-or-nothing thinking).
Effects of Rumination
So how does rumination impact our lives? According to Response Style Theory, rumination doesn’t just fail to relieve distress—it can actually make it worse and prolong it. What begins as a response to emotional pain can turn into a vicious cycle: the more we ruminate, the more distressed we feel. As sadness deepens, we start viewing events through a darker, more negative lens. Negative emotions feed negative thoughts, and rumination strengthens this connection. When someone becomes caught up in their distress and continues to dwell on it, they may start to feel helpless and hopeless. This can lead to passivity—feeling unable to take action or solve the problem (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008).
Take Ahmet, for example. When he first learned that he didn’t pass the university exam, he may have felt disappointed and thought, “I failed the exam.” But in the following days, his mind kept returning to that thought. Over time, his thinking may shift toward deeper negativity—“I’m stupid” or “I will always fail.” This spiral of ruminative thinking can prevent him from taking helpful, goal-oriented steps, like exploring new educational opportunities or focusing on self-improvement. Chronic rumination can also affect relationships. People who ruminate often turn to loved ones for emotional relief, repeatedly talking about what went wrong and how they feel. While it’s healthy to share feelings, doing so in a repetitive, unproductive way can leave others feeling emotionally drained. Loved ones may eventually distance themselves, leaving the ruminating person with even less support (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008).
Research has shown that rumination is linked to a range of mental health issues, including depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, PTSD, sleep problems, and substance or alcohol abuse (Takano et al., 2012; Johnson et al., 2016; Hilt et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017). It’s also associated with aggression, self-harm, and suicidal thoughts (Anestis et al., 2009; Rogers & Joiner, 2017). Many experts view rumination as a transdiagnostic process, meaning it can play a role in the development and persistence of a wide variety of psychological disorders (Watkins & Roberts, 2020).
Rumination and Similar Concepts
Rumination is often confused with other psychological experiences. For example, obsessions—a key feature of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)—may appear similar, as both involve distressing thoughts. Obsessions are defined as intrusive, unwanted thoughts, images, or urges that cause intense discomfort. In response, individuals often perform certain behaviors or mental acts to neutralize these thoughts, typically due to the excessive meaning they attribute to them. While ruminative thoughts can also intensify distress, they usually arise in response to emotional discomfort. Unlike obsessions, ruminative thinking does not involve assigning excessive importance to a specific thought. Instead, the problem arises when the repetitive nature of rumination interferes with taking goal-directed action (Smith & Alloy, 2009).
Rumination can also be confused with worry. Research has shown that rumination and worry are closely related and often co-occur. Some studies describe worry as repetitive thinking focused on future threats, whereas rumination tends to involve repetitive thinking about the past (Smith & Alloy, 2009). The apparent purpose of rumination is to understand and make sense of distress, while worry is driven by the desire to anticipate and prepare for potential danger. However, both processes are ultimately motivated by a desire to avoid emotional discomfort (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008).
To clarify these concepts, consider the following examples:
After receiving his exam results, Ahmet repeatedly thinks, “I failed because I’m stupid,” engaging in past-focused, non-constructive thoughts → Rumination
After checking the iron before leaving home, Ali continues to experience the intrusive thought, “If I didn’t unplug it, the house will burn down and it’ll be my fault,” and believes it might be true → Obsession
Before starting a new job, Zeynep thinks, “What if I can’t meet deadlines?” and is consumed by future-oriented scenarios → Worry
But don’t we also think repeatedly when trying to solve problems? It’s true—people who ruminate may believe they are problem-solving. Studies show that ruminative individuals sometimes do find workable solutions. However, people who engage in non-ruminative problem-solving tend to feel more hopeful, motivated, and proactive in implementing their ideas. In contrast, ruminative thinkers often remain stuck in passive contemplation (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). What about deep reflection that isn’t focused on problem-solving but on understanding ourselves or existential questions? Is that also rumination? Not necessarily. Reflecting out of intellectual curiosity—exploring our identity, purpose, or beliefs—doesn’t always lead to immediate answers. But if this process involves noticing real-life experiences, analyzing them, and working toward insight or change, it can be considered constructive thinking, not rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008).
How Can We Stop Ruminating?
So, what can we do if we realize we’re stuck in rumination? When we ruminate, our minds tend to dwell on the past. That’s why one helpful strategy is to shift our attention to the present moment. A simple mindfulness exercise using the five senses can help:Notice 5 things you can see, 4 things you can touch, 3 things you can hear, 2 things you can smell, 1 thing you can taste.This exercise gently grounds us in the here and now. Once we’re back in the present, it’s important to focus on what we need to be doing in the moment. This helps pull our attention away from distressing thoughts and toward actions we can control.
Another helpful method is the “thinking time” technique. Here’s how it works: Choose a specific 15-minute time slot each morning—for example, 9:15 to 9:30—as your daily thinking time. When you notice yourself caught in repetitive thinking during the day, pause. Give yourself 3 minutes to think, then ask yourself:
Am I getting closer to an answer or solution?
Is the topic becoming clearer?
How do I feel after these 3 minutes?
If your answers to the first two questions are “yes,” and you feel better, then this thinking might be helpful. But if the answers are “no” and you feel worse, it likely means you’re ruminating. In that case, write down the topic you’re ruminating about in 2–3 words and save it for your next thinking time. Then, gently bring your attention back to the present. If you catch yourself ruminating again, repeat the same process. If you don’t feel like thinking about the issue during your next thinking time, or if you forget or miss the time, don’t try to make up for it later in the day. Simply postpone it to the next day. This trains your mind to respond more flexibly to distress and gives you greater control over repetitive thinking.
If you feel that rumination is affecting your well-being, you can seek support from IPAM or other psychotherapy services.
References
Anestis, M. D., Anestis, J. C., Selby, E. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2009). Anger rumination across forms of aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(2), 192-196.
Harper, D. (n.d.). Etymology of rumination. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved June 25, 2025, from Online Etymology Dictionary
Hilt, L. M., Armstrong, J. M., & Essex, M. J. (2017). Rumination and moderators of multifinality: Predicting internalizing symptoms and alcohol use during adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 46(5), 746-753.
Johnson, D. P., Rhee, S. H., Friedman, N. P., Corley, R. P., Munn-Chernoff, M. A., Hewitt, J. K., & Whisman, M. A. (2016). A twin study examining rumination as a transdiagnostic correlate of psychopathology. Clinical Psychological Science, 4(6), 971-987.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400-424.
Rogers, M. L., & Joiner, T. E. (2017). Rumination, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 21(2), 132–142.
Smith, J. M., & Alloy, L. B. (2009). A roadmap to rumination: A review of the definition, assessment, and conceptualization of this multifaceted construct. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(2), 116-128.
Takano, K., Iijima, Y., & Tanno, Y. (2012). Repetitive thought and self-reported sleep disturbance. Behavior Therapy, 43(4), 779–789.